Optometry - Journal of the American Optometric Association
Volume 81, Issue 5 , Pages 240-252 , May 2010

Post-traumatic stress disorder and vision

  • Joseph N. Trachtman, O.D., Ph.D.

      Affiliations

    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author: Joseph N. Trachtman, O.D., Ph.D., 5008 Pullman Avenue NE, Seattle, Washington 98105

References 

  1. Rand Corporation. One in five Iraq and Afghanistan veterans suffer from PTSD or major depression. Available at: http://www.rand.org/news/press/2008/04/17/. Last accessed January 23, 2010.
  2. Department of Veterans Affairs, Seamless Transition Office, statement by John Brown, Director, May 19, 2005, before the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations, Committee on Veterans' Affairs, United States House of Representatives.
  3. Available at: http://www.usphs.gov/Articles/Dod.aspx. Last accessed January 23, 2010.
  4. Military Officers of America Association. Proposed joint seamless transition office responsibilities. December 4, 2008. Available at: http://www.moaa.org/lac/lac_resources/lac_resources_hc/lac_resources_hc_officeresponsibilities.htm. Last accessed January 23, 2010.
  5. Yehuda R, LeDoux J. Response variation following trauma: a traditional neuroscience approach to understanding PTSD. Neuron. 2007;56:16
  6. University of California–Irvine (2006, February 7). Historic records shed light on solidiers' lifelong war scars. Science Daily. Available at: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/02/060206233356.htm. Last accessed January 23, 2010.
  7. The history of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) 2008. Available at: http://www.psychiatric-disorders.com/articles/ptsd/causes-and-history/history-of-ptsd.php. Last accessed January 23, 2010.
  8. Sargant W. Battle for the mind. London: Pan Books Ltd; 1957;
  9. Breuer J, Freud S. Studies in hysteria—1893. (trans. A.A. Brill). New York: Nervous and Mental Disorders Publishing Company; 1936;
  10. Jones E, Fear NT, Wessely S. Shell shock and mild traumatic brain injury: a historical review. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164(11):1641–1645
  11. Salmon TW, Fenton N. The Medical Department of the United States Army in the World War, Volume X, Neuropsychiatry. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office; 1929;
  12. Pavlov IP. Conditioned reflexes: an investigation of the physiological activity of the cerebral cortex. In:  Anrep GV editors. New York: Dover Publications, Inc.; 1960;
  13. Ahsen A. Basic concepts in eidetic psychotherapy. New York: Brandon House, Inc.; 1973;
  14. Bandler R, Grinder J. Frogs into princes. Moab, Utah: Real People Press; 1979;
  15. Rosenfeld JP. An EEG biofeedback protocol for affective disorders. Clinical Electroencephalography. 2000;31:7–12
  16. Scott WC, Kaiser D, Othmer S, et al. Effects of an EEG biofeedback protocol on a mixed substance abusing population. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2005;31:455–469
  17. Peniston EO. The Peniston-Kulkosky Brainwave Neurofeedback Therapeutic Protocol: the future psychotherapy for alcoholism/PTSD/behavioral medicine. American Academy of Experts in Traumatic Stress. 2006;Available at: http://www.aaets.org/article47.htm. Last accessed January 23, 2010.
  18. Halpern S. Virtual Iraq: Using simulation to treat new generation of traumatized veterans. The New Yorker. May 19, 2008;
  19. Available at: http://www.afterdeployment.org. Last accessed January 23, 2010.
  20. Peniston EO, Kulkosky PJ. Alpha-theta brainwave training and beta-endorphin levels in alcoholics. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research. 1989;13(2):271–279
  21. Keane TM, Malloy PF, Fairbanks JA. Empirical development of an MMPI subscale for the assessment of combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1984;52:888–891
  22. Reger GM, Gahm GA. Virtual reality exposure therapy for active duty soldiers. J Clin Psychol. 2008;64(8):940–946
  23. Rizzo AA, Graap K, McIay RN, et al. Virtual Iraq: Initial results from a VR exposure therapy application for combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Studies in Health Technology and Informatics. 2008;132:420–425
  24. Orsillo SM. Measures for acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder. In:  Atony MM,  Orsillo MM,  Roemer L editor. Practitioner's guide to empirically based measures of anxiety. New York: Springer; 2001;
  25. Lyons JA, Wheeler-Cox T. MMPI, MMPI-2 and PTSD: Overview of scores, scales, and profiles. J Trauma Stress. 1999;12(1):175–183
  26. Thompson WW, Gottesman , Zalewski C. Reconciling disparate prevalence rates of PTSD in large samples of US male Vietnam veterans and their controls. BMC Psychiatry. 2006;6(19):10
  27. Weathers F, Litz B, Herman D, et al. The PTSD Checklist (PCL): Reliability, validity, and diagnostic utility. Annual Convention of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, October1993, San Antonio, TX.
  28. United States Department of Veterans Affairs. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist—Military (PCL-M). June 2006. Available at: http://www.afcrossroads.com/famseparation/rem_docs/ams/McChord_PTSD-checklist_template.pdf. Last accessed January 23, 2010.
  29. Norris FH, Hamblen JL. Standardized self-report measures of civilian trauma and PTSD. In:  Wilson JP,  Keane TM editor. Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD. New York: Guilford Press; 2004;
  30. Green DM, Swets JA. Signal detection theory and psychophysics. New York: John Wiley and Sons Ltd,; 1966;
  31. Friedman MJ, Schnurr PP, McDonagh-Coyle A. Post-traumatic stress disorder in the military veteran. Psychiatric Clin North Am. 1994;17(2):265–277
  32. Thompson WW, Gottesman , Zalewski C. Reconciling disparate prevalence rates of PTSD in large samples of US male Vietnam veterans and their controls. BioMed Central Psychiatry. 2006;6:19–28
  33. van der Kolk BA, Burbridge JA, Suzuki J. The psychobiology of traumatic memory: Clinical implications of neuroimaging studies. Ann NY Acad Sci. 1997;821:99–113
  34. Morris JS, Öhman A, Dolan RJ. A subcortical pathway to the right amygdala mediating “unseen” fear. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA. 1999;96:1680–1685
  35. Davidson RJ. The neural circuitry of emotion and effective style: prefrontal cortex and amygdala contributions. Social Science Information. 2001;40(1):11–37
  36. Voss HU, Temple E. The aftermath of 9/11: effect of intensity and recency of trauma on outcome. Emotion. 2007;7(2):227–238
  37. van der Kolk BA. Clinical implications of neuroscience research in PTSD. Ann NY Acad Sci. 2006;40:1–17
  38. Swaab DF. The human hypothalamus: basic and clinical aspects. Part I: nuclei of the human hypothalamus. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2003;
  39. Yehuda R, Golier JA, Halligan SL, et al. The ACTH response to desamethasone in PTSD. Am J Psychiatry. 2004;161(8):1397–1403
  40. Mawdsley JE, Rampton DS. Psychological stress in IBD: new insights into pathogenic and therapeutic implications. Gut. 2005;54:1481–1491
  41. Savas LS, White DL, Wieman M, et al. Irritable bowel syndrome and dyspepsia among women veterans: prevalence and association with psychological stress. Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 2009;29(1):115–125
  42. Guillemin R. Peptides in the brain. The new endocrinology of the neuron. Nobel Lecture, December 8, 1977.
  43. Schally AV. Aspects of hypothalamic regulation of the pituitary gland with major emphasis on its implications for the control of reproductive processes. Nobel Lecture, December 8, 1977. Available at: www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/.../laureates/1977/schally-lecture.html. Last accessed January 23, 2010.
  44. Cahill SP, Foa EB, Hembree EA, et al. Dissemination of exposure therapy in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. J Traumatic Stress. 2006;19(5):597–610
  45. Bisson J. Post-traumatic stress disorder. Br Med J. 2007;334:789–793
  46. Foa EB, Kozak MJ. Emotional processing of fear: Exposure to corrective information. Psychological Bulletin. 1986;99(1):20–35
  47. Van Minnen A, Foa EB. The effect of imaginal exposure length on outcome of treatment for PTSD. J Traumatic Stress. 2006;19(4):1–12
  48. The Carlat Psychiatry Report, April 2004; 2(4). Available at: http://www.thecarlatreport.com/topics/PTSD. Last accessed January 23, 2010.
  49. Othmer S. Homecoming for Veterans. Available at: http://www.homecoming4vets.org/. Last accessed January 23, 2010.
  50. Putnam J. The effects of brief, eyes-open alpha brain wave training with audio and video relaxation induction on the EEG of 77 army reservists. J Neurotherapy. 2000;4(1):17–28
  51. Sokhadze TM, Cannon RL, Trudeau DL. EEG biofeedback as a treatment for substance use disorders: review, rating of efficacy, and recommendation for further research. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback. 2008;33:1–28
  52. Hammond DC. Neurofeedback with anxiety and affective disorders. Child Adolescent Psychiatric Clin North Am. 2005;14:105–123
  53. Davidson PR, Parker KCH. Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR): a meta-analysis. J Counseling Clinical Psychol. 2001;69(2):305–316
  54. Rothbaum BO, Hodges LF, Ready D, et al. Virtual reality exposure therapy for Vietnam veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2001;62(8):617–622
  55. Kenny P, Parsons TD, Gratch J, et al. Evaluation of Justina: a virtual patient with PTSD. Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence. 2008;5208:394–408
  56. Parsons TD, Rizzo AA. Affective outcomes of virtual reality exposure therapy for anxiety and specific phobias: a meta-analysis. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 2008;39:250–261
  57. Gerardi M, Rothbaum BO, Ressler K, et al. Virtual reality exposure therapy using a virtual Iraq: case report. J Traumatic Stress. 2008;21(2):209–213
  58. Rizzo AA, Graap K, Pair J, et al. User-centered design driven development of a virtual reality therapy application of Iraq war combat-related post traumatic stress disorder. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Disability, Virtual Reality and Associated Technology, Esbjerg, Denmark, 2006a, 113–122.
  59. Rizzo AA, Pair J, Parsons T, et al. A virtual reality therapy application for OEF/OIF combat-related post traumatic stress disorder. Proceedings of the 25th Army Science Conference, Orlando, FL, November 2006b, 1–8.
  60. van Etten ML, Taylor S. Comparative efficacy of treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder: a meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Psychother. 1998;5:126–144
  61. Friedman MJ, Donnelly CL, Mellman TA. Pharmacotherapy for PTSD. Psychiatric Annals. 2003;33(1):57–62
  62. Iribarren J, Prolo P, Neagos N, et al. Post-traumatic stress disorder: evidence-based research for the third millennium. Evidence Based Complementary Alternative Medicine. 2005;2(4):503–512
  63. Rothbaum BO, Cahill SP, Foa EB, et al. Augmentation of sertraline with prolonged exposure in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. J Traumatic Stress. 2006;19(5):625–638
  64. Ballenger JC. Anxiety and depression: optimizing treatments. Primary Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry. 2000;2(3):71–79
  65. Gelenberg AJ. Psychiatric and somatic markers of anxiety: identification and pharmacologic treatment. Primary Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry. 2000;2(2):49–54
  66. Bishop JR, Pavuluri MN. Review of risperidone for the treatment of pediatric and adolescent bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment. 2008;4(1):55–68
  67. Arnone D. Review of the use of Topiramate for treatment of psychiatric disorders. Ann General Psychiatry. 2005;4(5):14
  68. Golomb BA. Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and Gulf War illnesses. Proc Nat Acad Sci. 2008;105(11):4295–4300
  69. Available at: www.epocrates.com. Last accessed January 23, 2010.
  70. Department of Veterans Affairs, Quick Guide – Provider: Traumatic Brain Injury. Available at:http://www1.va.gov/environagents/docs/TBI-handout-physicians.pdf. Last accessed January 23, 2010.
  71. Dikmen SS, Heaton RK, Grant I, et al. Test-retest reliability and practice effects of expanded Halstead Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery. J Int Neuropsychological Soc. 1999;5(4):346–356
  72. Bazarian JJ, Veazie P, Mookerjee S, et al. Accuracy of mild traumatic brain injury case ascertainment using ICD-9 codes. J Acad Emerg Med. 2006;13(1):31–38
  73. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Code proposals for the Departments of Defense and Veterans Affairs. September 25, 2008
  74. Available at: http://ucsdnews.ucsd.edu/newsrel/awards/09-08PTSD-TBI.asp. Last accessed January 23, 2010.
  75. Duke-Elder S, Wybar KC. System of ophthalmology. Volume II. The anatomy of the visual system. St. Louis: The C.V. Mosby Company; 1961;
  76. Foxe JJ, Schroeder CE. The case for feedforward multisensory convergence during early cortical processing. Neuroreport. 2005;16(5):419–423
  77. In:  Miller NR,  Newman NJ,  Biousse V, et al. editor. Walsh & Hoyt's clinical neuro-ophthalmology: the essentials. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; 2007;
  78. Lam BL, Christ SL, Lee DJ, et al. Reported visual impairment and risk of suicide. Arch Ophthalmol. 2008;126(7):975–980
  79. Department of Veterans Affairs, National Center for PTSD, Iraq War Clinical Guide, 2nd Edition, June 2004.
  80. Brown M. Toxicological assessments of Gulf War veterans. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. 2006;361:649–679
  81. Cwikel J, Abdelgani A, Goldsmith JR, et al. Two-year follow-up of stress-related disorders among immigrants to Israel from the Chernobyl area. Environmental Health Perspectives. 1997;105(6):1545–1550
  82. Scaer RC. The neurophysiology of dissociation and chronic disease. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback. 2001;26(1):73–91
  83. Ciufredda KJ, Rutner D, Kapoor N, et al. Vision therapy for oculomotor dysfunctions in acquired brain injury: a retrospective analysis. Optometry. 2008;79:18–22
  84. Ciufredda KJ, Kapoor N, Rutner D, et al. Occurrence of oculomotor dysfunctions in acquired brain injury: a retrospective analysis. Optometry. 2007;78:155–161
  85. Suchoff IB, Kapoor N, Ciufredda KJ, et al. The frequency of occurrence, types, and characteristics of visual field defects in acquired brain injury: A retrospective analysis. Optometry. 2008;79:259-5
  86. Padula WV, Ikeda E, Vicci V. The need for optometric rehabilitation for our veterans who have incurred a traumatic brain injury – Senate Bill1 999/House Bill 3558. Optometry. 2008;79(4):170–171
  87. Public Law 101-181, National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2008. Section 1623 (c) (3). January 28, 2008 Available at: http://www.dod.mil/dodgc/olc/docs/pl110-181.pdf. Last accessed january 23, 2010.
  88. In:  Kastin AJ editors. Handbook of biologically active peptides. Burlington, MA: Academic Press; 2006;
  89. McDermott AM. Defensins and other antimicrobial peptides at the ocular surface. Ocular Surface. 2004;2(4):229–247
  90. Paulsen F, Hallmann U, Paulsen J, et al. Innervation of the cavernous body of the human efferent tear ducts and function in tear outflow mechanism. J Anat. 2000;197:177–187
  91. Zoukhri D, Macari E, Choi SH, et al. C-Jun NH2-terminal kinase mediates Interleukin-1β induced inhibition of lacrimal gland secretion. J Neurochem. 2006;96(1):126–135
  92. Huang LC, Jean D, Poske RJ, et al. Ocular surface expression and in vivo activity of antimicrobial peptides. Curr Eye Res. 2007;32(7-8):595–599
  93. Li D-Q, Luo L, Chen Z, et al. JNK and ERK MAP kinases mediate of IL-1β, TNF-α and IL-8 following hypersmolar stress in human limbal epithelial cells. Exp Eye Res. 2006;82(4):588–596
  94. Faal N, Bailey RL, Jeffries D, et al. Conjunctival FOXP3 expression in trachoma: do regulatory T cells have a role in human ocular Chlamydia trachomatis infections?. PLoS. 2006;3(8):1292–1301
  95. Wiernas TK, Griffin BW, Sharif NA. The expression of functionally-coupled B2-bradykinin receptors in human corneal epithelial cells and their pharmacological characterization with agonists and antagonists. Br J Pharmacol. 1997;121:649–656
  96. Narayanan S, Miller WL, McDermott AM. Expression of human β-defensins in conjunctival epithelium: relevance to dry eye disease. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2003;44(9):3795–3801
  97. Vij N, Sharma A, Thakkar M, et al. PDGF-driven proliferation, migration, and IL8 chemokine secretion in human corneal fibroblasts involve JAK2-STAT3 signaling pathway. Mol Vis. 2008;14:1020–1027
  98. Geerling G, MacLennan S, Hartwig D. Autologus serum eye drops for ocular surface disorders. Br J Ophthalmol. 2004;88:1467–1474
  99. Koh S-WM, Guo Y, Bernstein SL, et al. Vasoactive intestinal peptide induction by ciliary neurotrophic factor in donor human corneal endothelium in situ. Neurosci Lett. 2007;423(2):89–94
  100. Cullinane AB, Leung PS, Ortego J, et al. Renin-angiotensin system expression and secretory function in cultured human ciliary body non-pigmented epithelium. Br J Ophthalmol. 2002;86:676–683
  101. Delaney Y, Walshe TE, O'Brien C. Vasospasm in glaucoma: clinical and laboratory aspects. Optom Vis Sci. 2006;83(7):406–414
  102. Lograno MD, Reibaldi A. Receptor-responses in fresh human ciliary muscle. Br J Pharmacol. 1986;87:379–385
  103. Gottanka J, Kirch W, Tamm ER. The origin of extrinsic nitregic axons supplying the human eye. J Anat. 2005;206:225–229
  104. Troger J, Sellemond S, Kieselbach G, et al. Inhibitory effect of certain neuropeptides on the proliferation of human retinal pigment epithelial cells. Br J Ophthalmol. 2003;87:1403–1408
  105. Stone RA, Laties AM, Raviola E, et al. Increase in retinal vasoactive intestinal peptide after eyelid fusion in primates. Proc Nat Acad Sci. 1988;85:257–260
  106. Tkatchenko AV, Walsh PA, Tkatchenko TV, et al. Form deprivation modulates retinal neurogenesis in primate experimental myopia. Proc Nat Acad Sci. 2006;103(12):4681–4686
  107. Funatsu H, Yamashita H, Hakanishi Y, et al. Angiotensin II and vascular endothelial growth factor in the vitreous fluid of patients with proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Br J Ophthalmol. 2002;86:311–315
  108. Wiemer NGM, Eekhoff EMW, Simsek S, et al. The effect of acute hyperglycemia on retinal thickness and ocular refraction in healthy subjects. Graefe's Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2008;246:703–708
  109. Toyran S, Lin AY, Edward DP. Expression of growth differentiation factor-5 and bone morphogenic protein-7 in intraocular osseous metaplasia. Br J Ophthalmol. 2005;89:885–890
  110. Bian Z-M, Elner SG, Elner VM. Thrombin induces VEGF expression in human retinal pigment epithelial cells. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2007;48(6):2738–2746
  111. Jablonski MM, Iannaccone A, Reynolds DH, et al. Age-related decline in VIP-positive parasympathetic nerve fibers in the human submacular choroids. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2007;48(2):479–485
  112. Storch K-F, Paz C, Signorovitch J, et al. Intrinsic circadian clock of the mammalian retina: importance for retinal processing of visual information. Cell. 2007;130(4):730–741
  113. Gustincich S, Contini M, Gariboldi M, et al. Gene discovery in genetically labeled single dopaminergic neurons of the retina. Proc Nat Acad Sci. 2004;101(14):5069–5074
  114. Trachtman JN. Vision and the hypothalamus. Optometry. 2010;81(2):100–115
  115. Ohry A, Rattok J, Solomon Z. Post-traumatic stress disorder in brain injury patients. Brain Injury. 1996;10(9):687–695
  116. Klein E, Caspi Y, Gil S. The relation between memory of the traumatic event and PTSD: evidence from studies of traumatic brain injury. Can J Psychiatry. 2003;48(1):28–33
  117. Glaesser J, Neuner F, Lütgehetmann R, et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder in patients with traumatic brain injury. BioMed Central Psychol. 2004;4(5):6
  118. Bombardier CH, Fann JR, Temkin N, et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms during the first six months after traumatic brain injury. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2006;18:501–508
  119. King NS. PTSD and traumatic brain injury: folklore and fact?. Brain Injury. 2008;22(1):1–5
  120. Schneiderman AI, Braver ER, Kang HK. Understanding sequelae of injury mechanisms and mild traumatic brain injury incurred during the conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan: persistent postconcussive symptoms and posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Epidemiol. 2008;167:1446–1452
  121. Army Behavioral Health, 2008. Available at: http://www.behavioralhealth.army.mil/ptsd/index.html. Last accessed January 23, 2010.
  122. Hembree EA, Foa EB. Posttraumatic stress disorder: psychological factors and psychosocial interventions. J Clin Psychiatry. 2000;61(Suppl 7):33–39
  123. Jones E. War and the practice of psychotherapy: The UK experience 1939-1960. Medical History. 2004;48:493–510
  124. Litz BT, Gray MJ, Bryant RA, et al. Early intervention for trauma: Current status and future directions. Clin Psychol: Science and Practice. 2002;9(2):112–134
  125. Sherman JJ. Effects of psychotherapeutic treatments for PTSD: A meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials. J Traumatic Stress. 1998;11(3):413–435
  126. Bisson J, Andrew M. Psychological treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database Systematic Review. 2005;3:CD003388
  127. Keane TM, Street AE, Orcutt HK. Posttraumatic stress disorder. In:  Hersen M,  Biaggio M editor. Effective brief therapies: A clinician's guide. New York: Academic Press; 2000;
  128. Spinazzola J, Blaustein M, van der Kolk BA. Posttraumatic stress disorder treatment outcome research: The study of unrepresentative samples?. J Traumatic Stress. 2005;18(5):425–436
  129. Available at: http://www.retorno.org. Last accessed January 23, 2010.
  130. Available at: http://www.rxlist.ocm. Last accessed January 23, 2010.
  131. Britton JC, Shim LM, Barrett LF, et al. Amygdala and fusiform gyrus temporal dynamics: responses to negative facial expressions. BMC Neurosci. 2008;9(44):6
  132. Coch D, Fischer KW, Dawson G. Human behavior, learning, and the developing brain: typical development. New York: Guilford Press; 2007;
  133. Carrasco GA, Van de Kar LD. Neuroendocrine pharmacology of stress. Eur J Pharmacol. 2003;463:235–272
  134. Dinan TG, Scott LV. Anatomy of melancholia: focus on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis overactivity and the role of vasopressin. J Anat. 2005;207:259–264
  135. LeDoux J. The amygdala. Curr Biol. 2007;17(20):R868–R874
  136. Silverman MN, Pearce BD, Biron CA, et al. Immune modulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis during viral infection. Viral Immunol. 2005;18(1):41–78
  137. Janjoppi L, Silva de Lacerda AF, Scorza FA, et al. Influence of pinealectomy on the amygdala kindling development in rats. Neurosci Lett. 2006;392(1-2):150–153
  138. Silva de Lacerda AF, Janjoppi L, Scorza FA, et al. Physical exercise program reverts the effects of pinealectomy on the amygdala kindling development. Brain Res Bull. 2007;74(4):216–220
  139. Phelps EA, LeDoux JE. Contributions of the amygdala to emotion processing: from animal models to human behavior. Neuron. 2005;48:148–187
  140. Meeren HKM, Hadjkhani N, Ahlfors SP, et al. Early category-specific cortical activation revealed by visual stimulus inversion. PLoS One. 2008;3(10):11
  141. Van den Stock J, van de Riet WAC, Righart R, et al. Neural correlates of perceiving emotional faces and bodies in developmental prosopagnosia: an event-related fMRI-study. PLoS One. 2008;3(9):10
  142. Nomi JS, Scherfeld D, Friederichs S, et al. On the neural networks of empathy: a principal component analysis of an fMRI study. Behav Brain Functions. 2008;4(41):13
  143. In:  Woosley N editors. Cortical sensory organisation, Volume 2: multiple visual areas. Clifton, NJ: Humana Press; 1981;
  144. Adamec RE. Evidence that the limbic neural plasticity in the right hemisphere mediates partial kindling induced lasting increases in anxiety-like behavior: effects of low frequency stimulation (quenching?) on long term potentiation of amygdala efferents and behavior following kindling. Brain Res. 1999;839(1):133–152
  145. Davidson RJ. Affective style and affective disorders: perspectives from affective neuroscience. Cognition and Emotion. 1998;12(3):307–330
  146. Renaud LP, Hopkins DA. Amygdala afferents from the mediobasal hypothalamus: an electrophysiological and neuroanatomical study in the rat. Brain Res. 1977;121(2):201–213
  147. Kiernan JA. Introduction to human neuroscience. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company; 1987;
  148. Pityk NI. Hypothalamic influences on unit activity in the cat superior colliculus. Neurophysiology. 1979;11(6):419–426
  149. Rieck RW, Ansari MS, Whetsell WO, et al. Distribution of dopamine D2-like receptors in the human thalamus: autoradiographic and PET studies. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2004;29:362–372
  150. Rieck RW, Huerta MF, Harting JK, et al. Hypothalamic and ventral thalamic projections to the superior colliculus in the cat. J Compar Neurol. 1986;243(2):249–265
  151. Williams LM, Das P, Liddell BJ, et al. Modes of functional connectivity in amygdala pathways dissociates level of awareness for signals of fear. J Neurosci. 2006;26(36):9264–9271
  152. Boyer JC, Harrison S, Ro T. Unconscious processing of orientation and color without primary visual cortex. Proc Nat Acad Sci. 2005;102(46):16875–16879
  153. Boehnke SE, Munoz DP. On the importance of transient visual responses in the superior colliculus. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2008;18:1–8
  154. Himmelbach M, Erb M, Karnath H-O. Activation of superior colliculi in humans during visual exploration. BMC Neurosci. 2007;8(66):7
  155. Öhman A. The role of the amygdala in human fear: automatic detection of threat. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2005;30:953–958
  156. Öhman A, Carlsson K, Lundqvist D, et al. On the unconscious subcortical origin of human fear. Psychol Behav. 2007;92:180–185
  157. Vandewalle G, Schmidt C, Albouy G, et al. Brain responses to violet, blue, and green monocharomatic light exposures in humans: prominent role of blue light and the brainstem. PLoS One. 2007;11:10
  158. de Gelder B, Snyder J, Greve D, et al. Fear fosters flight: a mechanism for fear contagion when perceiving emotion expressed by a whole body. Proc Nat Acad Sci. 2004;101(47):16701–16706
  159. Fallon JH, Moore RY. Superior colliculus efferents to the hypothalamus. Neurosci Lett. 1979;14(2-3):265–270
  160. Mahon BZ, Milleville SC, Negri GAL, et al. Action-related properties of objects shape object representations in the ventral stream. Neuron. 2007;55(3):507–520
  161. Duke-Elder S, Wybar KC. System of ophthalmology. Volume II. The anatomy of the visual system. St. Louis: The C.V. Mosby Company; 1961;

PII: S1529-1839(09)00663-0

doi: 10.1016/j.optm.2009.07.017

Optometry - Journal of the American Optometric Association
Volume 81, Issue 5 , Pages 240-252 , May 2010